More about the dual process theory of reasoning

Intelligence and the Cognitive Unconscious. Scott Barry Kaufman

http://www.scottbarrykaufman.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Kaufman-2011.pdf

This is an interesting chapter written by Scott Barry Kaufman about the dual process theory of reasoning.  Kaufman is one of the developers of this theory.  The theory is thought provoking and is relevant to what we  psychologists do and don't assess when we assess children.

The theory is based upon a distinction between two kinds of processes or systems.  In the table below I gathered features of both systems.  The information in the table gives us a preliminary picture about the nature of these systems:

System/process 2/B	System/process 1/A
Slow information processing	Fast  information processing
Can de-contextualize task representations and generalize from the specific context	Influenced by context
Abstract reasoning and meta-reasoning (the ability to reason about reason)	Concrete
A system that is evolutionarily new, and is found only in humans.	Influenced by biology.  A system that is found in animals as well.  A system that is evolutionarily old.
Uses information to change behavior and plan for the future.	Influenced by past experience.
	Helps to integrate new stimuli and knowledge into existing knowledge structures.
Activated when reasoning in the existing routes is not sufficient, and new reasoning is required.  Can inhibit system 1.  Includes executive functions (changing behavior according to feedback, cognitive inhibition and mental flexibility).	The default mode of reasoning – thinking in existing structures and routes.
Limited by working memory capacity and by processing speed.  Requires effort and attention.	Not limited by working memory capacity and by processing speed.  Does not require effort or attention.
Correlated with g.  individual differences in system 2 are related to individual differences in g.	Not correlated with g.
More affected by aging than system 1.
Reasonable.  Activated when intuition contradicts reason.	Intuitive
Controlled	Spontaneous
Conscious	Unconscious (can also be conscious, like when daydreaming).
Rule based	Associative
One central process	A set of autonomic systems that are partly innate and partly acquired through practice.  Is related to specific modules of information processing, like three dimensional processing, syntax processing, phonological processing and theory of mind.
Explicit	Implicit

The model assumes that the two processes are working  together harmoniously and in constant interaction, although they sometimes compete.  Both kinds of processes are conducive to intelligent behavior.  Different strategies along the continuum between pure intuition and a cold rational analysis will be applied in different decision making circumstances. The dual process theory does not place any of the two systems as more important than the other.  What's important is the ability to flexibly move between cognition modes according to task demands.

Controlled processes can rely on automatic processes, for example selective attention processes.  Controlled processes can inhibit automatic processes, when it's needed.  Automatic processes supply content to controlled processes.

It is argued, that decisions about relatively simple matters (like choosing which question to answer on a test based on one's knowledge) are made better with process 2 reasoning.  Decisions about relatively complex matters (like where to live, whom to marry, which career to choose, and also dealing with everyday social situations) are better made with process 1 reasoning.

Experts acquire knowledge that enables them to make fast, intuitive and efficient decisions (system 1), while beginners in the same field rely more on effortful reasoning (system 2).

There are individual differences in the ability and the tendency to engage in system 1 or system 2 reasoning.  Since cognitive abilities are not static but change through the life course, the more a person engages in a specific mode of thought, the better he will be in this mode of thought, and the more he will want to engage in it. 

Creativity and latent inhibition – in daily life it is important to distinguish automatically between stimuli that are relevant or irrelevant to the task at hand, and to filter out irrelevant information.  This is latent inhibition.  Apparently, people who have lowered latent inhibition have a higher chance of seeing and creating connections that others don't see.  This ability, combined with a high g, can lead to creative achievement.  As far as I understand, we are talking here about a lowered ability of system 2 to inhibit system 1.

The creative process begins with conscious thinking about a problem, and then unconscious work, and later, if there is insight, another phase of conscious work.  The creative process involves both systems.

The dual process theory of reasoning

Evans, J. S. B. (2003). In two minds: dual-process accounts of reasoning.Trends in cognitive sciences, 7(10), 454-459.‏http://faculty.weber.edu/eamsel/Classes/Methods%20(3610)/Old%20Sections/Fall%202010/Fall%202010%20Project/Evans%20(2003).pdf

This theory argues that reasoning is supported by two cognitive systems:

System A is evolutionarily old, and exists in animals too.  This is a set of autonomic subsystems that includes innate modules of input, and knowledge that is domain specific.  This system includes instinctive, born behaviors.    The system's processes are fast and automatic, and only their end result is accessible to consciousness.  An example of system A reasoning would be making a decision on the basis of past experience.

System B is evolutionarily new and exists only in humans.  This system allows for abstract and hypothetical thinking.  System B thinking is slow, and is limited by the capacity of working memory.  It is highly correlated with measures of general intelligence.  An example of system B reasoning would be making a decision about situations that have never happened before, by creating mental models or mental simulations of future possibilities. 

System B has an inhibitory function – it inhibits reactions that are based on beliefs and on prior knowledge, default reactions.  This inhibition requires a lot of effort and a large investment of attentional resources.

The two systems are competing for the control of our deduction processes and of our actions.  The systems are sometimes described as implicit (system A) and explicit (system B). 

This resembles, up to a certain point, fluid ability and executive functions (like system B) and crystallized knowledge (like system A), and also Cattell's investment theory.

This field is researched by paradigms that create a conflict between reactions based on logical thought processes and reactions  based on prior belief.  For example, people are given a logical syllogism  and have to judge which conclusions are necessarily drawn from the premises.

Intelligent adults are affected by the syllogism's content and not only by the extent to which the syllogism is logically valid.  According to the dual process theory, despite   trying to think logically as they were instructed to do, people find it hard to suppress the influence of prior beliefs which are competing efficiently for control of their reactions. 

Neuropsychological studies found that when people choose a right logical result which is contrary to their belief, a different area of the brain is activated than when they choose a result that fits with their belief but is logically wrong.

In this paper, the following example demonstrates the influence of content on logical reasoning (Wason's choice task):

In problem A, every card has a letter side and a number side.  One has to choose the cards that confirm or deny the statement: "if there is an A on one side of the card, then there is a 3 on the other side of the card".

In problem B, every card has a beverage side and an age side.  One has to choose the cards that confirm or deny the statement: "if a person is drinking beer, then that person must be over 18 years of age". 

The answer to problem A is A and 7.  The answer to problem B is "drinking beer" and "16 years of age".  Despite being similar problems, the abstract version, A, is much harder than the concrete version, B.  The content in version B makes it easier.  Many researchers think that problem A requires system B and problem B is solvable with the use of system A.